War Of The Worlds 30th Anniversary Edition 2nd Amendment

03.01.2020by admin

1985 Ford Thunderbird 30th Anniversary Edition
War Of The Worlds 30th Anniversary Edition 2nd Amendment Edition
War Of The Worlds 30th Anniversary Edition 2nd Amendment
30th Anniversary Poems
Schoolhouse Rock 30th Anniversary Edition

The Black History Month 2018 theme, “African Americans in Times of War,” marks the 100th anniversary of the end of World War I and honors the roles that black Americans have played in warfare.
May 12, 2018 The 2 nd Amendment, the right to own and bear firearms, is a touchy subject in America due to the many mass killings and armed robberies in our nation. The author takes us on a rollercoaster ride of corrupt officials trying to take our guns away from us, and veterans fighting to keep them.

The term 'Latin America' primarily refers to the Spanish and Portuguese-speaking countries in the New World.

Before the arrival of Europeans in the late 15th and early 16th centuries, the region was home to many indigenous peoples, a number of which had advanced civilizations, most notably from South; the Olmec, Maya, Muisca and Inca.

Undisputed Street Fighter Deluxe Edition: A 30th Anniversary Retrospective International Law 2nd Edition Experiment Number Theory (Oxford Graduate Texts in Mathematics). “Brave New World” crackles with doomed ambition, and “Forever Autumn” (originally composed for a Lego advert) is an unforgettable psych-rock love song set amid the smoking rubble. The War of the Worlds (30th Anniversary Deluxe Edition) Jeff Wayne. Meanwhile, bizarre occurrences are happening around the world. Government agents have close encounters of the second kind - discovering physical evidence of extraterrestrial visitors in the form of a lost fighter aircraft from World War II and a stranded military ship that disappeared decades earlier only to suddenly reappear in unusual places.

A 17th-century map of the Americas

The region came under control of the crowns of Spain and Portugal, which imposed both Roman Catholicism and their respective languages. Both the Spanish and the Portuguese brought African slaves to their colonies, as laborers, particularly in regions where indigenous populations who could be made to work were absent.

In the early nineteenth century nearly all of areas of Spanish America attained independence by armed struggle, with the exceptions of Cuba and Puerto Rico. Brazil, which had become a monarchy separate from Portugal, became a republic in the late nineteenth century. Political independence from European monarchies did not result in the abolition of black slavery in the new sovereign nations. Political independence resulted in political and economic instability in Spanish America immediately after independence. Great Britain and the United States exercised significant influence in the post-independence era, resulting in a form of neo-colonialism, whereby a country's political sovereignty remained in place, but foreign powers exercised considerable power in the economic sphere.

4Colonial-era Religion
620th century
- 6.11900–1929
721st century
8See also
10Further reading

Origin of the term and definition[edit]

The idea that a part of the Americas has a cultural or racial affinity with all Romance cultures can be traced back to the 1830s, in particular in the writing of the French Saint-SimonianMichel Chevalier, who postulated that this part of the Americas were inhabited by people of a 'Latin race,' and that it could, therefore, ally itself with 'Latin Europe' in a struggle with 'Teutonic Europe,' 'Anglo-Saxon America' and 'Slavic Europe.'^[1] The idea was later taken up by Latin American intellectuals and political leaders of the mid- and late-nineteenth century, who no longer looked to Spain or Portugal as cultural models, but rather to France.^[2] The actual term 'Latin America' was coined in France under Napoleon III and played a role in his campaign to imply cultural kinship with France, transform France into a cultural and political leader of the area and install Maximilian as emperor of Mexico.^[3]

In the mid-twentieth century, especially in the United States, there was a trend to occasionally classify all of the territory south of the United States as 'Latin America,' especially when the discussion focused on its contemporary political and economic relations to the rest of the world, rather than solely on its cultural aspects.^[4] Concurrently, there has been a move to avoid this oversimplification by talking about 'Latin America and the Caribbean,' as in the United Nations geoscheme.

Since, the concept and definitions of Latin American are very modern, going back only to the nineteenth century, it is anachronistic to talk about 'a history of Latin America' before the arrival of the Europeans. Nevertheless, the many and varied cultures that did exist in the pre-Columbian period had a strong and direct influence on the societies that emerged as a result of the conquest, and therefore, they cannot be overlooked. They are introduced in the next section.

The Pre-Columbian period[edit]

What is now Latin America has been populated for several millennia, possibly for as long as 30,000 years. There are many models of migration to the New World. Precise dating of many of the early civilizations is difficult because there are few text sources. However, highly developed civilizations flourished at various times and places, such as in the Andes and Mesoamerica.

Colonial Era[edit]

Christopher Columbus landed in the Americas in 1492. Subsequently, the major sea powers in Europe sent expeditions to the New World to build trade networks and colonies and to convert the native peoples to Christianity. Spain concentrated on building its empire on the central and southern parts of the Americas allotted to it by the Treaty of Tordesillas, because of presence of large, settled societies like the Aztec, the Inca, the Maya and the Muisca, whose human and material resources it could exploit, and large concentrations of silver and gold. The Portuguese built their empire in Brazil, which fell in their sphere of influence owing to the Treaty of Tordesillas, by developing the land for sugar production since there was a lack of a large, complex society or mineral resources.

During the European colonization of the western hemisphere, most of the native population died, mainly by disease. In what has come to be known as the Columbian exchange, diseases such as smallpox and measles decimated populations with no immunity. The size of the indigenous populations has been studied in the modern era by historians,^[5]^[6]^[7] but Dominican friar Bartolomé de las Casas raised the alarm in the earliest days of Spanish settlement in the Caribbean in his A Short Account of the Destruction of the Indies.

The conquerors and colonists of Latin America also had a major impact on the population of Latin America. The Spanish conquistadors committed savage acts of violence against the natives. According to Bartolomé de las Casas, the Europeans worked the native population to death, separated the men and the women so they could not reproduce, and hunted down and killed any natives who escaped with dogs. Las Casas claimed that the Spaniards made the natives work day and night in mines and would 'test the sharpness of their blades'^[8] on the natives. Las Casas estimated that around three million natives died from war, slavery, and overworking. When talking about the cruelty, Las Casas said 'Who in future generations will believe this? I myself writing it as a knowledgeable eyewitness can hardly believe it.'

Because the Spanish were now in power, native culture and religion were forbidden. The Spanish even went as far as burning the Maya Codices (like books). These codices contained information about astrology, religion, Gods, and rituals. There are four codices known to exist today; these are the Dresden Codex, Paris Codex, Madrid Codex, and HI Codex.^[9] The Spanish also melted down countless pieces of golden artwork so they could bring the gold back to Spain and destroyed countless pieces of art that they viewed as unchristian.

Colonial-era Religion[edit]

Traveling to the New World[edit]

The Spanish Crown regulated immigration to its overseas colonies, with travelers required to register with the House of Trade in Seville. Since the crown wished to exclude anyone who was non-Christian (Jews, crypto-Jews, and Muslims) passing as Christian, travelers' backgrounds were vetted. The ability to regulate the flow of people enabled the Spanish Crown to keep a grip on the religious purity of its overseas empire. The Spanish Crown was rigorous in their attempt to allow only Christians passage to the New World and required proof of religion by way of personal testimonies. Specific examples of individuals dealing with the Crown allow for an understanding of how religion affected passage into the New World.

Francisca de Figueroa, an African-Iberian woman seeking entrance into the Americas, petitioned the Spanish Crown in 1600 in order to gain a license to sail to Cartagena.^[10] On her behalf she had a witness attest to her religious purity, Elvira de Medina wrote, 'this witness knows that she and parents and her grandparents have been and are Old Christians and of unsullied cast and lineage. They are not of Moorish or Jewish caste or of those recently converted to Our Holy Catholic Faith.'^[11] Despite Francisca's race, she was allowed entrance into the Americas in 1601 when a 'Decree from His Majesty' was presented, it read, 'My presidents and official judges of the Case de Contraction of Seville. I order you to allow passage to the Province of Cartagena for Francisca de Figueroa ..'^[12] This example points to the importance of religion when attempting to travel to the Americas during colonial times. Individuals had to work within the guidelines of Christianity in order to appeal to the Crown and be granted access to travel.

Religion in Latin America[edit]

Once in the New World, religion was still a prevalent issue which had to be considered in everyday life. Many of the laws were based on religious beliefs and traditions and often these laws clashed with the many other cultures throughout colonial Latin America. One of the central clashes was between African and Iberian cultures; this difference in culture resulted in the aggressive prosecution of witches, both African and Iberian, throughout Latin America. According to European tradition '[a] witch – a bruja – was thought to reject God and the sacraments and instead worship the devil and observe the witches' Sabbath.'^[13] This rejection of God was seen as an abomination and was not tolerated by the authorities either in Spain nor Latin America. A specific example, the trial of Paula de Eguiluz, shows how an appeal to Christianity can help to lessen punishment even in the case of a witch trial.

Paula de Eguiluz was a woman of African descent who was born in Santo Domingo and grew up as a slave, sometime in her youth she learned the trade of witches and was publicly known to be a sorceress. 'In 1623, Paula was accused of witchcraft (brujeria), divination and apostasy (declarations contrary to Church doctrine).'^[14] Paula was tried in 1624 and began her hearings without much knowledge of the Crowns way of conducting legal proceedings. There needed to be appeals to Christianity and announcements of faith if an individual hoped to lessen the sentence. Learning quickly, Paula correctly 'recited the Lord's Prayer, the Creed, the Salve Regina, and the Ten Commandments' before the second hearing of her trial. Finally, in the third hearing of the trial Paula ended her testimony by 'ask[ing] Our Lord to forgive [me] for these dreadful sins and errors and requests .. a merciful punishment.'^[15] The appeals to Christianity and profession of faith allowed Paula to return to her previous life as a slave with minimal punishment. The Spanish Crown placed a high importance on the preservation of Christianity in Latin America, this preservation of Christianity allowed colonialism to rule Latin America for over three hundred years.

Nineteenth-century revolutions: the postcolonial era[edit]

Countries in Latin America by date of independence

Following the model of the American and French revolutions, most of Latin America achieved its independence by 1825. Independence destroyed the old common market that existed under the Spanish Empire after the Bourbon Reforms and created an increased dependence on the financial investment provided by nations which had already begun to industrialize; therefore, Western European powers, in particular Great Britain and France, and the United States began to play major roles, since the region became economically dependent on these nations. Independence also created a new, self-consciously 'Latin American' ruling class and intelligentsia which at times avoided Spanish and Portuguese models in their quest to reshape their societies. This elite looked towards other Catholic European models—in particular France—for a new Latin American culture, but did not seek input from indigenous peoples.

The failed efforts in Spanish America to keep together most of the initial large states that emerged from independence— Gran Colombia, the Federal Republic of Central America^[16] and the United Provinces of South America—resulted a number of domestic and interstate conflicts, which plagued the new countries. Brazil, in contrast to its Hispanic neighbors, remained a united monarchy and avoided the problem of civil and interstate wars. Domestic wars were often fights between federalists and centrists who ended up asserted themselves through the military repression of their opponents at the expense of civilian political life. The new nations inherited the cultural diversity of the colonial era and strived to create a new identity based around the shared European (Spanish or Portuguese) language and culture. Within each country, however, there were cultural and class divisions that created tension and hurt national unity.

Map of disputed territories in Latin America

For the next few decades there was a long process to create a sense of nationality. Most of the new national borders were created around the often centuries-old audiencia jurisdictions or the Bourbon intendancies, which had become areas of political identity. In many areas the borders were unstable, since the new states fought wars with each other to gain access to resources, especially in the second half of the nineteenth century. The more important conflicts were the Paraguayan War (1864–70; also known as the War of the Triple Alliance) and the War of the Pacific (1879–84). The Paraguayan War pitted Argentina, Brazil and Uruguay against Paraguay, which was utterly defeated. As a result, Paraguay suffered a demographic collapse: the population went from an estimated 525,000 persons in 1864 to 221,000 in 1871 and out of this last population, only around 28,000 were men. In the War of the Pacific, Chile defeated the combined forces of Bolivia and Peru. Chile gained control of saltpeter-rich areas, previously controlled by Peru and Bolivia, and Bolivia became a land-locked nation. By mid-century the region also confronted a growing United States, seeking to expand on the North American continent and extend its influence in the hemisphere. In Mexican–American War (1846–48), Mexico lost over half of its territory to the United States. In the 1860s France attempted to indirectly control Mexico. In South America, Brazil consolidated its control of large swaths of the Amazon Basin at the expense of its neighbors. In the 1880s the United States implemented an aggressive policy to defend and expand its political and economic interests in all of Latin America, which culminated in the creation of the Pan-American Conference, the successful completion of the Panama Canal and the United States intervention in the final Cuban war of independence.

The export of natural resources provided the basis of most Latin American economies in the nineteenth century, which allowed for the development of wealthy elite. The restructuring of colonial economic and political realities resulted in a sizable gap between rich and poor, with landed elites controlling the vast majority of land and resources. In Brazil, for instance, by 1910 85% of the land belonged to 1% of the population. Gold mining and fruit growing, in particular, were monopolized by these wealthy landowners. These 'Great Owners' completely controlled local activity and, furthermore, were the principal employers and the main source of wages. This led to a society of peasants whose connection to larger political realities remained in thrall to farming and mining magnates.

The endemic political instability and the nature of the economy resulted in the emergence of caudillos, military chiefs whose hold on power depended on their military skill and ability to dispense patronage. The political regimes were at least in theory democratic and took the form of either presidential or parliamentary governments. Both were prone to being taken over by a caudillo or an oligarchy. The political landscape was occupied by conservatives, who believed that the preservation of the old social hierarchies served as the best guarantee of national stability and prosperity, and liberals, who sought to bring about progress by freeing up the economy and individual initiative. Popular insurrections were often influential and repressed: 100,000 were killed during the suppression of a Colombian revolt between 1899 and 1902 during the Thousand Days' War. Some states did manage to have some of democracy: Uruguay, and partially Argentina, Chile, Costa Rica and Colombia. The others were clearly oligarchist or authoritarian, although these oligarchs and caudillos sometimes enjoyed support from a majority in the population. All of these regimes sought to maintain Latin America's lucrative position in the world economy as a provider of raw materials.

20th century[edit]

1900–1929[edit]

1903 political cartoon: President Roosevelt intimidating Colombia to acquire the Panama Canal Zone.

By the start of the century, the United States continued its interventionist attitude, which aimed to directly defend its interests in the region. This was officially articulated in Theodore Roosevelt's Big Stick Doctrine, which modified the old Monroe Doctrine, which had simply aimed to deter European intervention in the hemisphere. At the conclusion of the Spanish–American War the new government of Cuba and the United States signed the Platt Amendment in 1902, which authorized the United States to intervene in Cuban affairs when the United States deemed necessary. In Colombia, United States sought the concession of a territory in Panama to build a much anticipated canal across the isthmus. The Colombian government opposed this, but a Panamanian insurrection provided the United States with an opportunity. The United States backed Panamanian independence and the new nation granted the concession. These were not the only interventions carried out in the region by the United States. In the first decades of the twentieth century, there were several military incursions into Central America and the Caribbean, mostly in defense of commercial interests, which became known as the 'Banana Wars.'

The greatest political upheaval in the second decade of the century took place in Mexico. In 1908, President Porfirio Díaz, who had been in office since 1884, promised that he would step down in 1910. Francisco I. Madero, a moderate liberal whose aim was to modernize the country while preventing a socialist revolution, launched an election campaign in 1910. Díaz, however, changed his mind and ran for office once more. Madero was arrested on election day and Díaz declared the winner. These events provoked uprisings, which became the start of the Mexican Revolution. Revolutionary movements were organized and some key leaders appeared: Pancho Villa in the north, Emiliano Zapata in the south, and Madero in Mexico City. Madero's forces defeated the federal army in early 1911, assumed temporary control of the government and won a second election later on November 6, 1911. Madero undertook moderate reforms to implement greater democracy in the political system but failed to satisfy many of the regional leaders in what had become a revolutionary situation. Madero's failure to address agrarian claims led Zapata to break with Madero and resume the revolution. On February 18, 1913 Victoriano Huerta, a conservative general organized a coup d'état with the support of the United States; Madero was killed four days later. Other revolutionary leaders such as Villa, Zapata, and Venustiano Carranza continued to militarily oppose the federal government, now under Huerta's control. Allies Zapata and Villa took Mexico City in March 1914, but found themselves outside of their elements in the capital and withdrew to their respective bastions. This allowed Carranza to assume control of the central government. He then organized the repression of the rebel armies of Villa and Zapata, led in particular by General Álvaro Obregón. The Mexican Constitution of 1917, still the current constitution, was proclaimed but initially little enforced. The efforts against the other revolutionary leaders continued. Zapata was assassinated on April 10, 1919. Carranza himself was assassinated on May 15, 1920, leaving Obregón in power, who was officially elected president later that year. Finally in 1923 Villa was also assassinated. With the removal of the main rivals Obregón is able to consolidate power and relative peace returned to Mexico. Under the Constitution a liberal government is implemented but some of the aspirations of the working and rural classes remained unfulfilled. (See also, Agrarian land reform in Mexico.)

The prestige of Germany and German culture in Latin America remained high after the war but did not recover to its pre-war levels.^[17]^[18] Indeed in Chile the war bought an end to a period of scientific and cultural influence writer Eduardo de la Barra scorningly called 'the German bewichment' (Spanish: el embrujamiento alemán).^[19]

Sports[edit]

Sports became increasingly popular, drawing enthusiastic fans to large stadia.^[20] The International Olympic Committee (IOC) worked to encourage Olympic ideals and participation. Following the 1922 Latin American Games in Rio de Janeiro, the IOC helped to establish national Olympic committees and prepare for future competition. In Brazil, however, sporting and political rivalries slowed progress as opposing factions fought to control of international sport. The 1924 Summer Olympics in Paris and the 1928 Summer Olympics games in Amsterdam saw greatly increased participation from Latin American athletes.^[21] English and Scottish engineers brought futebol (soccer) to Brazil in the late 1800s. The International Committee of the YMCA of North America and the Playground Association of America played major roles in training coaches. .^[22]

1985 Ford Thunderbird 30th Anniversary Edition

1930–1960[edit]

A mural celebrating Jacobo Árbenz Guzmán and the Guatemalan Revolution

The Great Depression posed a great challenge to the region. The collapse of the world economy meant that the demand for raw materials drastically declined, undermining many of the economies of Latin America. Intellectuals and government leaders in Latin America turned their backs on the older economic policies and turned toward import substitution industrialization. The goal was to create self-sufficient economies, which would have their own industrial sectors and large middle classes and which would be immune to the ups and downs of the global economy. Despite the potential threats to United States commercial interests, the Roosevelt administration (1933–1945) understood that the United States could not wholly oppose import substitution. Roosevelt implemented a Good Neighbor policy and allowed the nationalization of some American companies in Latin America. Mexican President Lázaro Cárdenas nationalized American oil companies, out of which he created Pemex. Cárdenas also oversaw the redistribution of a quantity of land, fulfilling the hopes of many since the start of the Mexican Revolution. The Platt Amendment was also repealed, freeing Cuba from legal and official interference of the United States in its politics. The Second World War also brought the United States and most Latin American nations together.^[23]

In the postwar period, the expansion of communism became the greatest political issue for both the United States and governments in the region. The start of the Cold War forced governments to choose between the United States and the Soviet Union. Following the 1948 Costa Rica Civil War, the nation established a new constitution and was recognized as the first legitimate democracy in Latin America^[24] However, the new Costa Rican government, which now was constitutionally required to ban the presence of a standing military, did not seek regional influence and was distracted further by conflicts with neighboring Nicaragua.

Several socialist and communist insurgencies broke out in Latin America throughout the entire twentieth century, but the most successful one was in Cuba. The Cuban Revolution was led by Fidel Castro against the regime of Fulgencio Batista, who since 1933 was the principal autocrat in Cuba. Since the 1860s the Cuban economy had focused on the cultivation of sugar, of which 82% was sold in the American market by the twentieth century. Despite the repeal of the Platt Amendment, the United States still had considerable influence in Cuba, both in politics and in everyday life. In fact Cuba had a reputation of being the 'brothel of the United States,' a place where Americans could find all sorts of licit and illicit pleasures, provided they had the cash. Despite having the socially advanced constitution of 1940, Cuba was plagued with corruption and the interruption of constitutional rule by autocrats like Batista. Batista began his final turn as the head of the government in a 1952 coup. The coalition that formed under the revolutionaries hoped to restore the constitution, reestablish a democratic state and free Cuba from the American influence. The revolutionaries succeeded in toppling Batista on January 1, 1959. Castro, who initially declared himself as a non-socialist, initiated a program of agrarian reforms and nationalizations in May 1959, which alienated the Eisenhower administration (1953–61) and resulted in the United States breaking of diplomatic relations, freezing Cuban assets in the United States and placing an embargo on the nation in 1960. The Kennedy administration (1961–1963) authorized the funding and support of an invasion of Cuba by exiles. The invasion failed and radicalized the revolutionary government's position. Cuba officially proclaimed itself socialist and openly became an ally of the Soviet Union. The military collaboration between Cuba and the Soviet Union, which included the placement of intercontinental ballistic missiles in Cuba precipitated the Cuban Missile Crisis of October 1962.

Late-20th-century military regimes and revolutions[edit]

The military junta of Argentina saw widespread repression against those it deemed to be political dissidents

By the 1970s, leftists had acquired a significant political influence which prompted the right-wing, ecclesiastical authorities and a large portion of each individual country's upper class to support coups d'état to avoid what they perceived as a communist threat. This was further fueled by Cuban and United States intervention which led to a political polarization. Most South American countries were in some periods ruled by military dictatorships that were supported by the United States of America.

Around the 1970s, the regimes of the Southern Cone collaborated in Operation Condor killing many leftist dissidents, including some urban guerrillas.^[25]

Washington Consensus[edit]

The set of specific economic policy prescriptions that were considered the 'standard' reform package were promoted for crisis-wracked developing countries by Washington, DC-based institutions such as the International Monetary Fund (IMF), World Bank, and the US Treasury Department during the 1980s and '90s.

In recent years, several Latin American countries led by socialist or other left wing governments—including Argentina and Venezuela—have campaigned for (and to some degree adopted) policies contrary to the Washington Consensus set of policies. (Other Latin counties with governments of the left, including Brazil, Chile and Peru, have in practice adopted the bulk of the policies). Also critical of the policies as actually promoted by the International Monetary Fund have been some US economists, such as Joseph Stiglitz and Dani Rodrik, who have challenged what are sometimes described as the 'fundamentalist' policies of the International Monetary Fund and the US Treasury for what Stiglitz calls a 'one size fits all' treatment of individual economies.The term has become associated with neoliberal policies in general and drawn into the broader debate over the expanding role of the free market, constraints upon the state, and US influence on other countries' national sovereignty.^{[citation needed]}

21st century[edit]

Turn to the left[edit]

Left-leaning leaders of Bolivia, Brazil and Chile at the Union of South American Nations summit in 2008

Since the 2000s, or 1990s in some countries, left-wing political parties have risen to power. Hugo Chávez in Venezuela, Lula da Silva and Dilma Rousseff in Brazil, Fernando Lugo in Paraguay, Néstor and Cristina Kirchner in Argentina, Tabaré Vázquez and José Mujica in Uruguay, the Lagos and Bachelet governments in Chile, Evo Morales in Bolivia, Daniel Ortega in Nicaragua, Manuel Zelaya in Honduras (although deposed by the 28 June 2009 coup d'état), and Rafael Correa of Ecuador are all part of this wave of left-wing politicians who also often declare themselves socialists, Latin Americanists or anti-imperialists.

Turn to the right[edit]

In blue countries under right-wing governments as of 2017

The conservative wave (Portuguese: onda conservadora) is a political phenomenon that emerged in mid-2010 in South America. In Brazil, it began roughly around the time Dilma Rousseff, in a tight election, won the 2014 presidential election, kicking off the fourth term of the Workers' Party in the highest position of government.^[26] In addition, according to the political analyst of the Inter-Union Department of Parliamentary Advice, Antônio Augusto de Queiroz, the National Congresselected in 2014 may be considered the most conservative since the 're-democratization' movement, noting an increase in the number of parliamentarians linked to more conservative segments, as ruralists, military, police and religious.

The subsequent economic crisis of 2015 and investigations of corruption scandals led to a right-wing movement that sought to rescue ideas from economic liberalism and conservatism in opposition to left-wing policies.

^Mignolo, Walter (2005). The Idea of Latin America. Oxford: Wiley-Blackwell. pp. 77–80. ISBN978-1-4051-0086-1.
^McGuiness, Aims (2003). 'Searching for 'Latin America': Race and Sovereignty in the Americas in the 1850s' in Appelbaum, Nancy P. et al. (eds.). Race and Nation in Modern Latin America. Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 87-107. ISBN0-8078-5441-7
^Chasteen, John Charles (2001). Born in Blood and Fire: A Concise History of Latin America. W. W. Norton. p. 156. ISBN0-393-97613-0.
^Butland, Gilbert J. (1960). Latin America: A Regional Geography. New York: John Wiley and Sons. pp. 115–188. ISBN0-470-12658-2.Dozer, Donald Marquand (1962). Latin America: An Interpretive History. New York: McGraw-Hill. pp. 1–15.Szulc, Tad (1965). Latin America. New York Times Company. pp. 13–17.Olien, Michael D. (1973). Latin Americans: Contemporary Peoples and Their Cultural Traditions. New York: Holt, Rinehart and Winston. pp. 1–5. ISBN0-03-086251-5.Black, Jan Knippers (ed.) (1984). Latin America: Its Problems and Its Promise: A Multidisciplinary Introduction. Boulder: Westview Press. pp. 362–378. ISBN0-86531-213-3.CS1 maint: Extra text: authors list (link)Bruns, E. Bradford (1986). Latin America: A Concise Interpretive History (4 ed.). New York: Prentice-Hall. pp. 224–227. ISBN0-13-524356-4.Skidmore, Thomas E.; Peter H. Smith (2005). Modern Latin America (6 ed.). Oxford and New York: Oxford University Press. pp. 351–355. ISBN0-19-517013-X.
^Sherburne F. Cook and Woodrow Borah, Essays in Population History 3 vols. Berkeley and Los Angeles: University of California Press 1971-1979.
^David P. Henige, Numbers from Nowhere: the American Indian Contact Population Debate, Norman: University of Oklahoma Press 1998.
^Nobel David Cook, Born to Die: Disease and New World Conquest, 1492-1650. New York: Cambridge University Press 1998.
^Zinn, Howard (2015). A People's History of the United States. New York: HarperCollins. p. 6.
^'The Maya Codices'. about.com.
^McKnight, Afro-Latino Voices p 52.
^McKnight, Afro-Latino Voices p 61.
^McKnight, Afro-Latino Voices p 64.
^McKnight, Afro-Latino Voices p 176.
^McKnight, Afro-Latino Voices p 175.
^McKnight, Afro-Latino Voices p 193.
^Christopher Minster (2007). 'The Federal Republic of Central America (1823-1840)'. About.com. Retrieved 2009-05-01.
^Sanhueza, Carlos (2011). 'El debate sobre 'el embrujamiento alemán' y el papel de la ciencia alemana hacia fines del siglo XIX en Chile'(PDF). Ideas viajeras y sus objetos. El intercambio científico entre Alemania y América austral. Madrid–Frankfurt am Main: Iberoamericana–Vervuert (in Spanish). pp. 29–40.
^Penny, H. Glenn (2017). 'Material Connections: German Schools, Things, and Soft Power in Argentina and Chile from the 1880s through the Interwar Period'. Comparative Studies in Society and History. 59 (3): 519–549. doi:10.1017/S0010417517000159. Retrieved December 13, 2018.
^Sanhueza, Carlos (2011). 'El debate sobre 'el embrujamiento alemán' y el papel de la ciencia alemana hacia fines del siglo XIX en Chile'(PDF). Ideas viajeras y sus objetos. El intercambio científico entre Alemania y América austral. Madrid–Frankfurt am Main: Iberoamericana–Vervuert (in Spanish). pp. 29–40.
^David M.K. Sheinin, ed., Sports Culture in Latin American History (2015).
^Cesar R. Torres, 'The Latin American 'Olympic Explosion’ of the 1920s: causes and consequences.' International Journal of the History of Sport 23.7 (2006): 1088-1111.
^Claudia Guedes, '‘Changing the cultural landscape’: English engineers, American missionaries, and the YMCA bring sports to Brazil–the 1870s to the 1930s.' International Journal of the History of Sport 28.17 (2011): 2594-2608.
^Victor Bulmer-Thomas, The Economic History of Latin America since Independence (2nd ed. 2003) pp 189-231.
^Mainwaring, Scott; Pérez-Liñán, Aníbal (December 2008). 'Regime legacies and democratization: explaining variance in the level of democracy in Latin America, 1978-2004'(PDF). Kellogg Institute.
^Victor Flores Olea. 'Editoriales – El Universal – 10 de abril 2006 : Operacion Condor' (in Spanish). El Universal (Mexico). Archived from the original on 2007-06-28. Retrieved 2009-03-24.
^Boulos, Guilherme. 'Onda Conservadora'. Retrieved 11 October 2017.

Millennium:	2nd millennium
Centuries:
Timelines:
State leaders:
Decades:
Categories:	Births – Deaths Establishments – Disestablishments

Overview[edit]

The first electronics appeared in the 19th century, with the introduction of the electric relay in 1835, the telegraph and its Morse code protocol in 1837, the first telephone call in 1876,^[1] and the first functional light bulb in 1878.^[2]

The 19th century was an era of rapidly accelerating scientific discovery and invention, with significant developments in the fields of mathematics, physics, chemistry, biology, electricity, and metallurgy that laid the groundwork for the technological advances of the 20th century.^[3] The Industrial Revolution began in Great Britain and spread to continental Europe, North America and Japan.^[4] The Victorian era was notorious for the employment of young children in factories and mines, as well as strict social norms regarding modesty and gender roles.^[5] Japan embarked on a program of rapid modernization following the Meiji Restoration, before defeating China, under the Qing Dynasty, in the First Sino-Japanese War. Advances in medicine and the understanding of human anatomy and disease prevention took place in the 19th century, and were partly responsible for rapidly accelerating population growth in the western world. Europe's population doubled during the 19th century, from approximately 200 million to more than 400 million.^[6] The introduction of railroads provided the first major advancement in land transportation for centuries, changing the way people lived and obtained goods, and fuelling major urbanization movements in countries across the globe. Numerous cities worldwide surpassed populations of a million or more during this century. London became the world's largest city and capital of the British Empire. Its population increased from 1 million in 1800 to 6.7 million a century later. The last remaining undiscovered landmasses of Earth, including vast expanses of interior Africa and Asia, were explored during this century, and with the exception of the extreme zones of the Arctic and Antarctic, accurate and detailed maps of the globe were available by the 1890s. Liberalism became the pre-eminent reform movement in Europe.^[7]

Arab slave traders and their captives along the Ruvuma river (in today's Tanzania and Mozambique), 19th century

Slavery was greatly reduced around the world. Following a successful slave revolt in Haiti, Britain and France stepped up the battle against the Barbary pirates and succeeded in stopping their enslavement of Europeans. The UK's Slavery Abolition Act charged the British Royal Navy with ending the global slave trade.^[8] The first colonial empire in the century to abolish slavery was the British, who did so in 1834. America's 13th Amendment following their Civil War abolished slavery there in 1865, and in Brazil slavery was abolished in 1888 (see Abolitionism). Similarly, serfdom was abolished in Russia in 1861.

The 19th century was remarkable in the widespread formation of new settlement foundations which were particularly prevalent across North America and Australia, with a significant proportion of the two continents' largest cities being founded at some point in the century. Chicago in the United States and Melbourne in Australia were non-existent in the earliest decades but grew to become the 2nd largest cities in the United States and British Empire respectively by the end of the century. In the 19th century approximately 70 million people left Europe, with most migrating to the United States.^[9]

The 19th century also saw the rapid creation, development and codification of many sports, particularly in Britain and the United States. Association football, rugby union, baseball and many other sports were developed during the 19th century, while the British Empire facilitated the rapid spread of sports such as cricket to many different parts of the world. Also, ladywear was a very sensitive topic during this time, where women showing their ankles was viewed to be scandalous.

The boundaries set by the Congress of Vienna, 1815.

It also marks the fall of the Ottoman rule of the Balkans which led to the creation of Serbia, Bulgaria, Montenegro and Romania as a result of the second Russo-Turkish War, which in itself followed the great Crimean War.

Eras[edit]

Map of the world from 1897. The British Empire (marked in pink) was the superpower of the 19th century.

British Regency, Victorian era (UK, British Empire)
Bourbon Restoration, July Monarchy, French Second Republic, Second French Empire, French Third Republic (France)
Belle Époque (Europe)
Edo period, Meiji period (Japan)
Qing dynasty (China)
Joseon dynasty (Korea)
Zulu Kingdom (South Africa)
Tanzimat, First Constitutional Era (Ottoman Empire)
American Manifest Destiny, The Gilded Age

Wars[edit]

Napoleonic Wars[edit]

Napoleon's retreat from Russia in 1812. The war swings decisively against the French Empire

The Napoleonic Wars were a series of major conflicts from 1803 to 1815 pitting the French Empire and its allies, led by Napoleon I, against a fluctuating array of European powers formed into various coalitions, financed and usually led by the United Kingdom. The wars stemmed from the unresolved disputes associated with the French Revolution and its resultant conflict.

In the aftermath of the French Revolution, Napoleon Bonaparte gained power in France in 1799. In 1804, he crowned himself Emperor of the French.

In 1805, the French victory over an Austrian-Russian army at the Battle of Austerlitz ended the War of the Third Coalition. As a result of the Treaty of Pressburg, the Holy Roman Empire was dissolved.

Later efforts were less successful. In the Peninsular War, France unsuccessfully attempted to establish Joseph Bonaparte as King of Spain. In 1812, the French invasion of Russia had massive French casualties, and was a turning point in the Napoleonic Wars.

In 1814, after defeat in the War of the Sixth Coalition, Napoleon abdicated and was exiled to Elba. Later that year, he escaped exile and began the Hundred Days before finally being defeated at the Battle of Waterloo and exiled to Saint Helena, an island in the South Atlantic Ocean.

After Napoleon's defeat, the Congress of Vienna was held to determine new national borders. The Concert of Europe attempted to preserve this settlement was established to preserve these borders, with limited impact.

Latin American independence[edit]

The Chilean Declaration of Independence on 18 February 1818

Most countries in Central America and South America obtained independence from colonial overlords during the 19th century. In 1804, Haiti gained independence from France. In Mexico, the Mexican War of Independence was a decade-long conflict that ended in Mexican independence in 1821.

Due to the Napoleonic Wars, the royal family of Portugal relocated to Brazil from 1808-1821, leading to Brazil having a separate monarchy from Portugal.

The Federal Republic of Central America gained independence from Spain in 1821 and from Mexico in 1823. After several rebellions, by 1841 the federation had dissolved into the independent countries of Guatemala, El Salvador, Honduras, Nicaragua, and Costa Rica.^[10]

In 1830, the post-colonial nation of Gran Colombia dissolved and the nations of Colombia (including modern-day Panama), Ecuador, and Venezuela took its place.

Revolutions of 1848[edit]

Liberal and nationalist pressure led to the European revolutions of 1848

The Revolutions of 1848 were a series of political upheavals throughout Europe in 1848. The revolutions were essentially democratic and liberal in nature, with the aim of removing the old monarchical structures and creating independent nation states.

The first revolution began in January in Sicily.^{[clarification needed]} Revolutions then spread across Europe after a separate revolution began in France in February. Over 50 countries were affected, but with no coordination or cooperation among their respective revolutionaries.

According to Evans and von Strandmann (2000), some of the major contributing factors were widespread dissatisfaction with political leadership, demands for more participation in government and democracy, demands for freedom of the press, other demands made by the working class, the upsurge of nationalism, and the regrouping of established government forces.^[11]

Abolition and the American Civil War[edit]

William Wilberforce (1759–1833), politician and philanthropist who was a leader of the movement to abolish the slave trade.

The abolitionism movement achieved success in the 19th century. The Atlantic slave trade was abolished in 1808, and by the end of the century, almost every government had banned slavery. The Slavery Abolition Act of 1833 banned slavery throughout the British Empire, and the Lei Áurea abolished slavery in Brazil in 1888.

Abolitionism in the United States continued until the end of the American Civil War. Among others Frederick Douglass, and Harriet Tubman, were two of many American Abolitionists who helped win the fight against slavery. Douglass was an articulate orator and incisive antislavery writer; while Tubman's efforts was by using a network of antislavery activists and safe houses known as the Underground Railroad.

High Profit Candlestick Patterns by Stephen Bigalow scanned version 64.8MB Publication Date: October 1, 2005 High profit trading patterns, revealed by utilizing time-honored Japanese candlestick signals. A straight-forward approach to understanding and exploiting market opportunities. May 27, 2002 “Profitable Candlestick Entry and Exit Strategies” How To Recognize The Exact Right Time To Buy Or Sell A Candlestick Forum publication – Years of Candlestick Analysis made available in concise formats. Information that when learned and understood will revolutionize and discipline your investment thinking. Jul 12, 2012 'High Profit Trades found with Candlestick Breakout Patterns' - Stephen Bigalow. Join Stephen Bigalow as he shares the ease and effectiveness of using Candlestick Signals. Bigalow Over 30 years of investment experience, including eight years as a stockbroker with major Wall Street firms. Business and Economics degree from Cornell University Active member of AAPTA, the American Association of Professional Technical Analysts Published Author of three Candlestick Analysis Trading Books. High Profit Candlestick Patterns [Stephen Bigalow] on Amazon.com. *FREE* shipping on qualifying offers. High profit trading patterns, revealed by utilizing time-honored Japanese candlestick signals. A straight-forward approach to understanding and exploiting market opportunities.

The American Civil War took place from 1861-1865. Eleven southern states seceded from the United States, largely over concerns related to slavery. In 1863, President Abraham Lincoln issued the Emancipation Proclamation. Lincoln issued a preliminary^[12] on September 22, 1862 warning that in all states still in rebellion (Confederacy) on January 1, 1863, he would declare their slaves 'then, thenceforward, and forever free.'^[13] The Thirteenth Amendment to the Constitution,^[14] ratified in 1865, officially abolished slavery in the entire country.

Five days after Robert E. Lee surrendered at Appomattox Courthouse, Virginia, Lincoln was assassinated by actor and Confederate sympathiser John Wilkes Booth.

Decline of the Ottoman Empire[edit]

In 1830, Greece became the first country to break away from the Ottoman Empire after the Greek War of Independence. In 1831, the Great Bosnian uprising against Ottoman rule occurred. In 1817, the Principality of Serbia became suzerain from the Ottoman Empire, and in 1867, it passed a Constitution which defined its independence from the Ottoman Empire. In 1876, Bulgarians instigate the April Uprising against Ottoman rule. Following the Russo-Turkish War, the Treaty of Berlin recognized the formal independence of the Principality of Serbia, Montenegro and Romania. Bulgaria becomes autonomous.

China: Taiping Rebellion[edit]

A scene of the Taiping Rebellion.

The Taiping Rebellion was the bloodiest conflict of the 19th century, leading to the deaths of 20 million people. Its leader, Hong Xiuquan, declared himself the younger brother of Jesus Christ and developed a new Chinese religion known as the God Worshipping Society. After proclaiming the establishment of the Taiping Heavenly Kingdom in 1851, the Taiping army conquered a large part of China, capturing Nanjing in 1853. In 1864, after the death of Hong Xiuquan, Qing forces recaptured Nanjing and ended the rebellion.^[15]

Japan: Meiji Restoration[edit]

During the Edo period, Japan largely pursued an isolationist foreign policy. In 1853, United States Navy Commodore Matthew C. Perry threatened the Japanese capital Edo with gunships, demanding that they agree to open trade. This led to the opening of trade relations between Japan and foreign countries, with the policy of Sakoku formally ended in 1854.

By 1872, the Japanese government under Emperor Meiji had eliminated the daimyō system and established a strong central government. Further reforms included the abolishment of the samurai class, rapid industrialization and modernization of government, closely following European models.^[16]

Colonialism[edit]

Arrival of Marshal Randon in Algiers, French Algeria in 1857

In 1862, French gained its first foothold in Southeast Asia, and in 1863 France annexes Cambodia.

1803: The United States more than doubles in size when it buys out France's territorial claims in North America via the Louisiana Purchase. This begins the U.S.'s westward expansion to the Pacific referred to as its Manifest Destiny which involves annexing and conquering land from Mexico, Britain, and Native Americans.
1823–1887: The British Empire annexed Burma (now also called Myanmar) after three Anglo-Burmese Wars.
1867: The United States purchases Alaska from Russia.

Africa[edit]

Comparison of Africa in the years 1880 and 1913

In Africa, European exploration and technology led to the colonization of almost the entire continent by 1898. New medicines such as quinine and more advanced firearms allowed European nations to conquer native populations.^[17]

Motivations for the Scramble for Africa included national pride, desire for raw materials, and Christian missionary activity. Britain seized control of Egypt to ensure control of the Suez Canal. France, Belgium, Portugal, and Germany also had substantial colonies. The Berlin Conference of 1884–1885 attempted to reach agreement on colonial borders in Africa, but disputes continued, both amongst European powers and in resistance by the native population.^[17]

In 1867, diamonds were discovered in the Kimberley region of South Africa. In 1886, gold was discovered in Transvaal. This led to colonization in Southern Africa by the British and business interests, led by Cecil Rhodes.^[17]

Other wars[edit]

1801–1815: the First Barbary War and the Second Barbary War between the United States and the Barbary States of North Africa.
1804–1810: Fulani Jihad in Nigeria.
1804–1813: Russo-Persian War.
1806–1812: Russo-Turkish War, Treaty of Bucharest.
1808–1809: Russia conquers Finland from Sweden in the Finnish War.
1816: Shaka rises to power over the Zulu Kingdom. Zulu expansion was a major factor of the Mfecane ('Crushing') that depopulated large areas of southern Africa
1810: The Grito de Dolores begins the Mexican War of Independence.
1810s–1820s: Punjab War between the Sikh Empire and British Empire.
1812–1815: War of 1812 between the United States and Britain; ends in a draw, except that Native Americans lose power.
1813–1837: Afghan–Sikh Wars.
1814–16: Anglo-Nepalese War between Nepal (Gurkha Empire) and British Empire.
1817: First Seminole War begins in Florida.
1817: Russia commences its conquest of the Caucasus.
1820: Revolutions of 1820 in Southern Europe
1825–1830: Java War.
1826–1828: After the final Russo-Persian War, the Persian Empire took back territory lost to Russia from the previous war.
1828–1832: Black War in Tasmania leads to the near extinction of the Tasmanian aborigines
1830: November Uprising in Poland against Russia.
1830: End of the Diponegoro war. The whole area of Yogyakarta and Surakarta Manca nagara Dutch seized. 27 September, Klaten Agreement determines a fixed boundary between Surakarta and Yogyakarta and permanently divide the kingdom of Mataram was signed by Sasradiningrat, Pepatih Dalem Surakarta, and Danurejo, Pepatih Dalem Yogyakarta. Mataram is a de facto and de yure controlled by the Dutch East Indies.
1831: Franceinvades and occupies Algeria.
1831–1833: Egyptian–Ottoman War.
1846–1848: The Mexican–American War leads to Mexico's cession of much of the modern-day Southwestern United States.
1853–1856: Crimean War between France, the United Kingdom, the Ottoman Empire and Russia.
1861–1865: American Civil War between the Union and seceding Confederacy.
Dead Confederate soldiers. 30% of all Southern white males 18–40 years of age died in the American Civil War.^[18]
1861–1867: French intervention in Mexico and the creation of the Second Mexican Empire, ruled by Maximilian I of Mexico and his consort Carlota of Mexico.
1863–1865: Polish uprising against the Russian Empire.
1864–1870: The Paraguayan War ends Paraguayan ambitions for expansion and destroys much of the Paraguayan population.
1866: Austro-Prussian War results in the dissolution of the German Confederation and the creation of the North German Confederation and the Austrian-Hungarian Dual Monarchy.
1868-1869: Boshin War results in end of the shogunate and the founding the Japanese Empire.
1868–1878: Ten Years' War between Cuba and Spain.
1870–1871: The Franco-Prussian War results in the unifications of Germanyand Italy, the collapse of the Second French Empire and the emergence of a New Imperialism.
1879: Anglo-Zulu War results in British victory and the annexation of the Zulu Kingdom.
1879–1880: Little War against Spanish rule in Cuba leads to rebel defeat.
1879–1883: Chile battles with Peru and Bolivia over Andean territory in the War of the Pacific.
1880–1881: the First Boer War.
1881–1899: The Mahdist War in Sudan.
1882: The Anglo-Egyptian War British invasion and subsequent occupation of Egypt
1894–1895: After the First Sino-Japanese War, China cedes Taiwan to Japan and grants Japan a free hand in Korea.
1895: Taiwan is ceded to the Empire of Japan as a result of the First Sino-Japanese War.
1895–1896: Abyssinia defeats Italy in the First Italo–Ethiopian War.
1895–1898: Cuban War for Independence results in Cuban independence from Spain.
1896-1898: Philippine Revolution results Filipino victory.
1898: The Spanish–American War results in independence of Cuba.
1899–1901: The Boxer Rebellion in China is suppressed by an Eight-Nation Alliance.
1899–1902: The Thousand Days' War in Colombia breaks out between the 'Liberales' and 'Conservadores', culminating with the loss of Panama in 1903.
1899–1902: Second Boer War begins.
1899–1902: Philippine–American War begins.

Science and technology[edit]

Distinguished Men of Science.^[19] Use your cursor to see who is who.^[20]

The 19th century saw the birth of science as a profession; the term scientist was coined in 1833 by William Whewell,^[21] which soon replaced the older term of (natural) philosopher. Among the most influential ideas of the 19th century were those of Charles Darwin (alongside the independent researches of Alfred Russel Wallace), who in 1859 published the book The Origin of Species, which introduced the idea of evolution by natural selection. Another important landmark in medicine and biology were the successful efforts to prove the germ theory of disease. Following this, Louis Pasteur made the first vaccine against rabies, and also made many discoveries in the field of chemistry, including the asymmetry of crystals. In chemistry, Dmitri Mendeleev, following the atomic theory of John Dalton, created the first periodic table of elements. In physics, the experiments, theories and discoveries of Michael Faraday, André-Marie Ampère, James Clerk Maxwell, and their contemporaries led to the creation of electromagnetism as a new branch of science. Thermodynamics led to an understanding of heat and the notion of energy was defined. Other highlights include the discoveries unveiling the nature of atomic structure and matter, simultaneously with chemistry – and of new kinds of radiation. In astronomy, the planet Neptune was discovered. In mathematics, the notion of complex numbers finally matured and led to a subsequent analytical theory; they also began the use of hypercomplex numbers. Karl Weierstrass and others carried out the arithmetization of analysis for functions of real and complex variables. It also saw rise to new progress in geometry beyond those classical theories of Euclid, after a period of nearly two thousand years. The mathematical science of logic likewise had revolutionary breakthroughs after a similarly long period of stagnation. But the most important step in science at this time were the ideas formulated by the creators of electrical science. Their work changed the face of physics and made possible for new technology to come about: Thomas Alva Edison gave the world a practical everyday lightbulb. Nikola Tesla pioneered the induction motor, high frequency transmission of electricity, and remote control. Other new inventions were electrical telegraphy and the telephone.

Michael Faraday (1791–1867)

1807: Potassium and Sodium are individually isolated by Sir Humphry Davy.
1831–1836: Charles Darwin's journey on HMS Beagle.
1859: Charles Darwin publishes On the Origin of Species.
1861: James Clerk Maxwell publishes On Physical Lines of Force, formulating the four Maxwell's equations.
1865: Gregor Mendel formulates his laws of inheritance.
1869: Dmitri Mendeleev created the Periodic table.
1873: Maxwell's A Treatise on Electricity and Magnetism published.
1877: Asaph Hall discovers the moons of Mars
1896: Henri Becquerel discovers radioactivity; J. J. Thomson identifies the electron, though not by name.

Medicine[edit]

Robert Koch discovered the tuberculosis bacilli. The disease killed an estimated 25 percent of the adult population of Europe during the 19th century.^[22]

1804: Morphine first isolated.
1842: Anesthesia used for the first time.
1855: Cocaine is isolated by Friedrich Gaedcke.
1885: Louis Pasteur creates the first successful vaccine against rabies for a young boy who had been bitten 14 times by a rabid dog.
1889: Aspirin patented.

Inventions[edit]

Thomas Edison was an American inventor, scientist, and businessman who developed many devices that greatly influenced life around the world, including the phonograph, the motion picture camera, and a long-lasting, practical electric light bulb.

First motor bus in history: the Benz Omnibus, built in 1895 for the Netphener bus company

1804: First steam locomotive begins operation.
1825: Erie Canal opened connecting the Great Lakes to the Atlantic Ocean.
1825: First isolation of aluminum.
1825: The Stockton and Darlington Railway, the first public railway in the world, is opened.
1826: Samuel Morey patents the internal combustion engine.
1829: First electric motor built.
1837: Telegraphy patented.
1841: The word 'dinosaur' is coined by Richard Owen
1844: First publicly funded telegraph line in the world—between Baltimore and Washington—sends demonstration message on 24 May, ushering in the age of the telegraph. This message read 'What hath God wrought?' (Bible, Numbers 23:23)
1849: The safety pin and the gas mask are invented.
1855: Bessemer process enables steel to be mass-produced.
1856: World's first oil refinery in Romania
1858: Invention of the phonautograph, the first true device for recording sound.
1863: First section of the London Underground opens.
1866: Successful transatlantic telegraph cable follows an earlier attempt in 1858.
1867: Alfred Nobel invents dynamite.
1869: First Transcontinental Railroad completed in United States on 10 May.
1870: Rasmus Malling-Hansen's invention the Hansen Writing Ball becomes the first commercially sold typewriter.
1873: Blue jeans and barbed wire are invented.
1877: Thomas Edison invents the phonograph
1878: First commercial telephone exchange in New Haven, Connecticut.
1879: Thomas Edison tests his first light bulb.
1881: First electrical power plant and grid in Godalming, Britain.
1884: Sir Hiram Maxim invents the first self-powered Machine gun.
1885: Singer begins production of the 'Vibrating Shuttle'. which would become the most popular model of sewing machine.
1886: Karl Benz sells the first commercial automobile.
1890: The cardboard box is invented.
1892: John Froelich develops and constructs the first gasoline/petrol-powered tractor.
1894: Karl Elsener invents the Swiss Army knife.
1894: First gramophone record.
1895: Wilhelm Röntgen identifies x-rays.

Religion[edit]

1830: The Church of Jesus Christ of Latter Day Saints is established on 6 April 1830.
1844: Persian Prophet the Báb announces his revelation on 23 May, founding Bábism. He announced to the world of the coming of 'He whom God shall make manifest'. He is considered the forerunner of Bahá'u'lláh, the founder of the Bahá'í Faith.
1871–1878: In Germany, Otto von Bismarck challenged the Catholic Church in the Kulturkampf ('Culture War')
1879: Mary Baker Eddy founds the Church of Christ, Scientist.
1889: Mirza Ghulam Ahmad establishes the Ahmadiyya Muslim Community, a reform sect of Islam.
1891: PopeLeo XIII launches the encyclicalRerum novarum, the first major Catholic document on social justice

Culture[edit]

The Great Exhibition in London. Starting during the 18th century, the United Kingdom was the first country in the world to industrialise.

1808: Beethoven composes Fifth Symphony
1813: Jane Austen publishes Pride and Prejudice
1818: Mary Shelley publishes Frankenstein.
1819: John Keats writes his odes of 1819.
1819: Théodore Géricault paints his masterpiece The Raft of the Medusa, and exhibits it in the French Salon of 1819 at the Louvre.
1824: Premiere of Beethoven's Ninth Symphony.
1829: Johann Wolfgang von Goethe's Faust premieres.
1837: Charles Dickens publishes Oliver Twist.
1841: Ralph Waldo Emerson publishes Self-Reliance.
1845: Frederick Douglass publishes Narrative of the Life of Frederick Douglass, an American Slave.
1847: The Brontë sisters publish Jane Eyre, Wuthering Heights and Agnes Grey.
1849: Josiah Henson publishes The Life of Josiah Henson, Formerly a Slave, Now an Inhabitant of Canada, as Narrated by Himself.
1851: Herman Melville publishes Moby-Dick.
1851: Sojourner Truth delivers the speech Ain't I a Woman?.
1852: Harriet Beecher Stowe publishes Uncle Tom's Cabin.
1855: Walt Whitman publishes the first edition of Leaves of Grass.
1855: Frederick Douglass publishes the first edition of My Bondage and My Freedom.
1862: Victor Hugo publishes Les Misérables.
1865: Lewis Carroll publishes Alice's Adventures in Wonderland.
1869: Leo Tolstoy publishes War and Peace.
1875: Georges Bizet's opera Carmen premiers in Paris.
1876: Richard Wagner's Ring Cycle is first performed in its entirety.
1883: Robert Louis Stevenson's Treasure Island is published.
1884: Mark Twain publishes the Adventures of Huckleberry Finn.
1886: 'Strange Case of Dr Jekyll and Mr Hyde' by Robert Louis Stevenson is published.
1887: Sir Arthur Conan Doyle publishes his first Sherlock Holmes story, A Study in Scarlet.
1889: Vincent van Gogh paints Starry Night.
1889: Moulin Rouge opens in Paris.
1892: Tchaikovsky's Nutcracker Suite premières in St Petersberg.
1894: Rudyard Kipling's The Jungle Book is published
1895: Trial of Oscar Wilde and premiere of his play The Importance of Being Earnest.
1897: Bram Stoker writes Dracula.
1900: L. Frank Baum publishes The Wonderful Wizard of Oz.

Russian writer Leo Tolstoy, author of War and Peace and Anna Karenina

Literature[edit]

On the literary front the new century opens with romanticism, a movement that spread throughout Europe in reaction to 18th-century rationalism, and it develops more or less along the lines of the Industrial Revolution, with a design to react against the dramatic changes wrought on nature by the steam engine and the railway. William Wordsworth and Samuel Taylor Coleridge are considered the initiators of the new school in England, while in the continent the German Sturm und Drang spreads its influence as far as Italy and Spain. French arts had been hampered by the Napoleonic Wars but subsequently developed rapidly. Modernism began.^[23]

The Goncourts and Émile Zola in France and Giovanni Verga in Italy produce some of the finest naturalist novels. Italian naturalist novels are especially important in that they give a social map of the new unified Italy to a people that until then had been scarcely aware of its ethnic and cultural diversity. There was a huge literary output during the 19th century. Some of the most famous writers included the Russians Alexander Pushkin, Nikolai Gogol, Leo Tolstoy, Anton Chekhov and Fyodor Dostoyevsky; the English Charles Dickens, John Keats, Alfred, Lord Tennyson and Jane Austen; the Scottish Sir Walter Scott; the Irish Oscar Wilde; the Americans Edgar Allan Poe, Ralph Waldo Emerson, and Mark Twain; and the French Victor Hugo, Honoré de Balzac, Jules Verne, Alexandre Dumas and Charles Baudelaire.^[24]

Some American literary writers, poets and novelists were: Walt Whitman, Mark Twain, Harriet Ann Jacobs, Nathaniel Hawthorne, Ralph Waldo Emerson, Herman Melville, Frederick Douglass, Harriet Beecher Stowe, Joel Chandler Harris, and Emily Dickinson to name a few.

Photography[edit]

One of the first photographs, produced in 1826 by Nicéphore Niépce

Nadar, Self-portrait, c. 1860

Ottomar Anschütz, chronophotographer
Mathew Brady, documented the American Civil War
Edward S. Curtis, documented the American West notably Native Americans
Louis Daguerre, inventor of daguerreotype process of photography, chemist
Thomas Eakins, pioneer motion photographer
George Eastman, inventor of roll film
Hércules Florence, pioneer inventor of photography
Auguste and Louis Lumière, pioneer film-makers, inventors
Étienne-Jules Marey, pioneer motion photographer, chronophotographer
Eadweard Muybridge, pioneer motion photographer, chronophotographer
Nadar a.k.a. Gaspard-Félix Tournachon, portrait photographer
Nicéphore Niépce, pioneer inventor of photography
Louis Le Prince, motion picture inventor and pioneer film-maker
Sergey Prokudin-Gorsky, chemist and photographer
William Fox Talbot, inventor of the negative / positive photographic process.

Visual artists, painters, sculptors[edit]

Francisco Goya, The Third of May 1808, 1814, Museo del Prado

Eugène Delacroix, Liberty Leading the People, 1830, Louvre

Spoon and fork, c.1878, silver, Metropolitan Museum of Art

Vincent van Gogh, Self-portrait, 1889, National Gallery of Art

War Of The Worlds 30th Anniversary Edition 2nd Amendment Edition

Alphonse Mucha, Advertise with Biscuits Lefèvre-Utile, 1897

The Realism and Romanticism of the early 19th century gave way to Impressionism and Post-Impressionism in the later half of the century, with Paris being the dominant art capital of the world. In the United States the Hudson River School was prominent. 19th-century painters included:

Music[edit]

Sonata form matured during the Classical era to become the primary form of instrumental compositions throughout the 19th century. Much of the music from the 19th century was referred to as being in the Romantic style. Many great composers lived through this era such as Ludwig van Beethoven, Franz Liszt, Frédéric Chopin, Pyotr Ilyich Tchaikovsky and Richard Wagner. The list includes:

Sports[edit]

1867: The Marquess of Queensberry Rules for boxing are published.
1872: The first recognised international soccer match, between England and Scotland, is played.
1877: The first test cricket match, between England and Australia, is played.
1891: Basketball is invented by James Naismith.
1895: Volleyball is invented.
1896: Olympic Games revived in Athens.

Events[edit]

1801–1850[edit]

1801: The Kingdom of Great Britain and the Kingdom of Ireland merge to form the United Kingdom.
1803: William Symington demonstrates his Charlotte Dundas, the 'first practical steamboat'.
1803: The Wahhabis of the First Saudi State capture Mecca and Medina.
1804: Austrian Empire founded by Francis I.
1804: World population reaches 1 billion.
1805: The Battle of Trafalgar eliminates the French and Spanish naval fleets and allows for British dominance of the seas, a major factor for the success of the British Empire later in the century.
1805–1848: Muhammad Ali modernizes Egypt.

1819: 29 January, Stamford Raffles arrives in Singapore with William Farquhar to establish a trading post for the British East India Company. 8 February, The treaty is signed between Sultan Hussein of Johor, Temenggong Abdul Rahman and Stamford Raffles. Farquhar is installed as the first Resident of the settlement.

1810: The University of Berlin was founded. Among its students and faculty are Hegel, Marx, and Bismarck. The German university reform proves to be so successful that its model is copied around the world (see History of European research universities).
1814: Elisha Collier invents the FlintlockRevolver.
1815: April, Mount Tambora in Sumbawa island erupts, becoming the largest volcanic eruption in recorded history, destroying Tambora culture, and killing at least 71,000 people, including its aftermath. The eruption created global climate anomalies known as 'volcanic winter'.^[25]
1816: Year Without a Summer: Unusually cold conditions wreak havoc throughout the Northern Hemisphere, likely influenced by the 1815 explosion of Mount Tambora.
1816–1828: Shaka's Zulu Kingdom becomes the largest in Southern Africa.
1819: The modern city of Singapore is established by the British East India Company.
1820: Discovery of Antarctica.
1820: Liberia founded by the American Colonization Society for freed American slaves.
1820: Dissolution of the Maratha Empire.
1822–1823: First Mexican Empire, as Mexico's first post-independent government, ruled by Emperor Agustín I of Mexico.
1823: Monroe Doctrine declared by US President James Monroe.
1825: The Decembrist revolt.

Decembrists at the Senate Square.

1829: Sir Robert Peel founds the Metropolitan Police Service, the first modern police force.

Emigrants leaving Ireland. From 1830 to 1914, almost 5 million Irish people went to the United States alone.

1830: Anglo-Russian rivalry over Afghanistan, the Great Game, commences and concludes in 1895.
1831: November Uprising ends with crushing defeat for Poland in the Battle of Warsaw.
1832: The British Parliament passes the Great Reform Act.
1834–1859: Imam Shamil's rebellion in Russian-occupied Caucasus.
1835–1836: The Texas Revolution in Mexico resulted in the short-lived Republic of Texas.
1836: Samuel Colt popularizes the revolver and sets up a firearms company to manufacture his invention of the Colt Paterson revolver a six bullets firearm shot one by one without reloading manually.
1837–1838: Rebellions of 1837 in Canada.
1838: By this time, 46,000 Native Americans have been forcibly relocated in the Trail of Tears.
1839–1860: After the First and Second Opium Wars, France, the United Kingdom, the United States and Russia gain many trade and associated concessions from China resulting in the start of the decline of the Qing dynasty.
1839–1919: Anglo-Afghan Wars lead to stalemate and the establishment of the Durand line
1842: Treaty of Nanking cedes Hong Kong to the British.
1843: The first wagon train sets out from Missouri.
1844: Rochdale Society of Equitable Pioneers establish what is considered the first cooperative in the world.
1845–1849: The Irish Potato Famine leads to the Irish diaspora.
1848: The Communist Manifesto published.
1848: Seneca Falls Convention is the first women's rights convention in the United States and leads to the battle for women's suffrage.
1848–1858: California Gold Rush.
1849: Earliest recorded air raid, as Austria employs 200 balloons to deliver ordnance against Venice.
1850: The Little Ice Age ends around this time.
1850: Franz Hermann Schulze-Delitzsch establishes the first cooperative financial institution.

1851–1900[edit]

1851: The Great Exhibition in London was the world's first international Expo or World Fair.
1852: Frederick Douglass delivers his speech 'The Meaning of July Fourth for the Negro' in Rochester, New York.
1857: Sir Joseph Whitworth designs the first long-range sniper rifle.
1857–1858: Indian Rebellion of 1857. The British Empire assumes control of India from the East India Company.
1858: Construction of Big Ben is completed.
1859–1869: Suez Canal is constructed.

The first vessels sail through the Suez Canal

1860: Giuseppe Garibaldi launches the Expedition of the Thousand.
1861: Russia abolishes serfdom.
1862–1877: Muslim Rebellion in north-west China.
1863: Formation of the International Red Cross is followed by the adoption of the First Geneva Convention in 1864.
1865–1877: Reconstruction in the United States; Slavery is banned in the United States by the Thirteenth Amendment to the United States Constitution.
1868: Michael Barrett is the last person to be publicly hanged in England.
1869: The Suez Canal opens linking the Mediterranean to the Red Sea.

A barricade in the Paris Commune, 18 March 1871. Around 30,000 Parisians were killed, and thousands more were later executed.

Black Friday, 9 May 1873, Vienna Stock Exchange. The Panic of 1873 and Long Depression followed.

1870: Official dismantling of the Cultivation System and beginning of a 'Liberal Policy' of deregulated exploitation of the Netherlands East Indies.^[26]
1870–1890: Long Depression in Western Europe and North America.
1871–1872: Famine in Persia is believed to have caused the death of 2 million.
1871: The Paris Commune briefly rules the French capital.
1872: Yellowstone National Park, the first national park, is created.
1874: The Société Anonyme Coopérative des Artistes Peintres, Sculpteurs, and Graveurs, better known as the Impressionists, organize and present their first public group exhibition at the Paris studio of the photographer Nadar.
1874: The Home Rule Movement is established in Ireland.
1875: HMS Challenger surveys the deepest point in the Earth's oceans, the Challenger Deep
1876: Battle of the Little Bighorn leads to the death of General Custer and victory for the alliance of Lakota, Cheyenne and Arapaho
1876–1914: The massive expansion in population, territory, industry and wealth in the United States is referred to as the Gilded Age.
1877: Great Railroad Strike in the United States may have been the world's first nationwide labour strike.
1881: Wave of pogroms begins in the Russian Empire.
1881–1882: The Jules Ferry laws are passed in France establishing free, secular education.
1883: Krakatoa volcano explosion, one of the largest in modern history.
1883: The quagga is rendered extinct.
1886: Construction of the Statue of Liberty; Coca-Cola is developed.
1888: Founding of the shipping line Koninklijke Paketvaart-Maatschappij (KPM) that supported the unification and development of the colonial economy.^[26]
1889: Eiffel Tower is inaugurated in Paris.

Studio portrait of Ilustrados in Europe, c. 1890

1890: First use of the electric chair as a method of execution.
1892: The World's Columbian Exposition was held in Chicago celebrating the 400th anniversary of Christopher Columbus's arrival in the New World.
1892: Fingerprinting is officially adopted for the first time.
1893: New Zealand becomes the first country to enact women's suffrage.
1893: The Coremans-de Vriendt law is passed in Belgium, creating legal equality for French and Dutch languages.
1894: Lombok War^[26] The Dutch looted and destroyed the Cakranegara palace of Mataram.^[27] J. L. A. Brandes, a Dutch philologist discovered and secured Nagarakretagama manuscript in Lombok royal library.
1896: Philippine Revolution ends declaring Philippines free from Spanish rule.
1898: The United States gains control of Cuba, Puerto Rico, and the Philippines after the Spanish–American War.
1898: Empress Dowager Cixi of China engineers a coup d'état, marking the end of the Hundred Days' Reform; the Guangxu Emperor is arrested.
Exposition Universelle held in Paris, prominently featuring the growing art trend Art Nouveau.
Eight nations invaded China at the same time and ransacked Forbidden City.

Significant people[edit]

Abraham Lincoln in 1863, 16th President of the United States, presided during the American Civil War, assassinated in April 1865

TsarAlexander II, also known as Alexander the Liberator, was the Emperor of the Russian Empire from 3 March 1855 until his assassination in 1881

War Of The Worlds 30th Anniversary Edition 2nd Amendment

Otto von Bismarck, the Iron Chancellor

Charles Alderton, creator of Dr Pepper
Frederick Douglass, Abolitionist, statesman, orator, newspaper editor, United States Minister Resident to Haiti
Alexander II, Emperor of Russia, King of Poland
Clara Barton, nurse, pioneer of the American Red Cross
Sitting Bull, a leader of the Lakota
John Burroughs, Naturalist, conservationist, writer
Benito Juárez, Mexican President
Shaka kaSenzangakhona, Monarch of the Zulu Kingdom
Davy Crockett, King of the wild frontier, folk hero, frontiersman, soldier and politician
Jefferson Davis, Confederate States President
Harriet Tubman, abolitionist and political activist.
William Gilbert Grace, English cricketer
Emilio Aguinaldo, A Filipino revolutionary, politician, and military leader
Baron Haussmann, civic planner
John Brown (abolitionist),
Franz Joseph I of Austria, Emperor of Austria and brother of Mexican Emperor
Chief Joseph, a leader of the Nez Percé
Kamehameha I, founder of the Kingdom of Hawaii died in May 1819
Ned Kelly, Australian folk hero, and outlaw
Elizabeth Kenny, Australian Nurse and found an Innovative Treatment of Polio
Sándor Kőrösi Csoma, explorer of the Tibetanculture
Abraham Lincoln, United States President
Fitz Hugh Ludlow, writer and explorer
William McKinley, 25th U.S. President
John Muir, Naturalist, writer, preservationist
Florence Nightingale, nursing pioneer
Nat Turner, Slave rebellion leader
Ranjit Singh, Maharaja of the Sikh Empire
Napoleon I, First Consul and Emperor of the French
Charles Stewart Parnell, Irish political leader
Commodore Perry, U.S. Naval commander, opened the door to Japan
José Rizal, Filipino polymath, physician, nationalist, novelist, poet, liberator
Sacagawea, Important aide to the Lewis and Clark Expedition
Giuseppe Garibaldi, was an Italian general and politician, a central figure in the Italian Risorgimento
Ignaz Semmelweis, proponent of hygienic practices
Dr. John Snow, the founder of epidemiology
F R Spofforth, Australian cricketer
Queen Victoria, Queen of the United Kingdom
King Victor Emmanuel II, first King of Italy
William Wilberforce, Abolitionist, Philanthropist
Hong Xiuquan inspired China's Taiping Rebellion, perhaps the bloodiest civil war in human history
Karl Marx wrote The Communist Manifesto, promoted the abolition of capitalism through international revolution.
Nikola Karev commander and leader of the Ilinden Uprising in Ottoman-Macedonia.
Henry George, economist and author of Progress and Poverty, one of the most influential books of the 19th century in the United States
Nabi Tajima, last verified surviving person born in the 19th century, died in 2018.

Show business and theatre[edit]

Sarah Bernhardt, 1877

P. T. Barnum, c. 1860

P. T. Barnum, showman
David Belasco, actor, playwright, theatrical producer
Sarah Bernhardt, actress
Edwin Booth, actor
John Wilkes Booth, actor, assassin of Abraham Lincoln
Dion Boucicault, playwright
Mrs Patrick Campbell, actress
Anton Chekhov, playwright
Buffalo Bill Cody, Wild West legend, and showman
Baptiste Deburau, Bohemian–French actor and mime.
Sergei Diaghilev, art critic, ballet impresario
Eleonora Duse, actress
Henrik Ibsen, playwright
Edmund Kean, actor
Charles Kean, actor
Olga Knipper, actress
Lillie Langtry, actress, socialite
Frédérick Lemaître, actor
Jenny Lind, opera singer called the Swedish Nightingale
William Macready, actor
Céleste Mogador, dancer
Lola Montez, exotic dancer
Adelaide Neilson, actress
Vladimir Nemirovich-Danchenko, playwright, theatre director, co-founder of Moscow Art Theatre
Annie Oakley, Wild West, sharp-shooter
Alexander Ostrovsky, playwright
Lillian Russell, singer, actress
George Bernard Shaw, playwright
Mikhail Shchepkin, actor
Konstantin Stanislavski, actor, theatre director, co-founder of Moscow Art Theatre
Edward Askew Sothern, actor
Ellen Terry, actress
Maria Yermolova, actress

Business[edit]

J. P. Morgan in his earlier years

John Jacob Astor III, Real Estate
Andrew Carnegie, Industrialist, philanthropist
Robert Reed Church, a freedman who became the South's first black millionaire, real estate
Jay Cooke, Finance
Henry Clay Frick, Industrialist, art collector
Jay Gould, Railroad developer
Meyer Guggenheim Family patriarch, mining
Daniel Guggenheim (copper)
E. H. Harriman, Railroads
Henry O. Havemeyer (sugar), art collector
George Hearst, Gold
James J. Hill (railroads) – The Empire Builder
Thomas Lipton, Scottish merchant and yachtsman known for Liptontea
Savva Mamontov, Industrialist, philanthropist
Andrew W. Mellon, Industrialist, philanthropist, art collector
J. P. Morgan, Banker, art collector
George Mortimer Pullman (railroads)
Ludvig Nobel, Oil
Charles Pratt Oil, founder of the Pratt Institute
Cecil Rhodes diamonds, mining magnate, founder of De Beers and benefactor of the Rhodes Scholarship.
John D. Rockefeller, Oil, Business tycoon, philanthropist
Levi Strauss, clothing manufacturer
Pavel Tretyakov, Businessman, art collector, philanthropist, founder of Tretyakov Gallery
Cornelius Vanderbilt, Shipping, Railroads
William Chapman Ralston, Businessman, Financier, founder of Bank of California.
Madam C.J. Walker, African American entrepreneur, philanthropist, political and social activist. Eulogized as first female self-made millionaire in America.

Anthropology, archaeology, scholars[edit]

Heinrich Schliemann, Archaeologist

Franz Boas one of the pioneers of modern anthropology

Churchill Babington, Archaeology
Adolph Francis Alphonse Bandelier, Archaeology
Franz Boas, Anthropology
Charles Étienne Brasseur de Bourbourg, Archaeology
Louis Agassiz Fuertes, Ornithology
George Bird Grinnell, Anthropology
Joseph LeConte, Scholar, preservationist
Nicholai Miklukho-Maklai, Anthropology
Clinton Hart Merriam, Zoology
Lewis H. Morgan, Anthropology
Jules Étienne Joseph Quicherat, Archaeology
Robert Ridgway, Ornithology
Edward Burnett Tylor, Anthropology
Karl Verner, Linguist

Journalists, missionaries, explorers[edit]

Roald Amundsen, explorer
Samuel Baker, explorer
Thomas Baines, artist, explorer
Heinrich Barth, explorer
Henry Walter Bates, naturalist, explorer
Fabian Gottlieb von Bellingshausen, explorer
Jim Bridger, explorer
Richard Francis Burton, explorer
William Clark, explorer
The Lewis and Clark Expedition, exploration
Frederick Samuel Dellenbaugh, explorer
Percy Fawcett, adventurer, explorer, proto-Indiana Jones
Vladimir Gilyarovsky, journalist
Horace Greeley, journalist
Peter Jones (missionary), Canadian Methodist minister, and go-between for Christians and his fellow Mississaugas and other Indian tribes.
Adoniram Judson, missionary
Sir John Kirk, explorer, physician, companion of David Livingston
Sir Joseph Dalton Hooker, botanist, explorer, friend of Charles Darwin
Sir William Jackson Hooker, botanist, explorer, father of Sir Joseph Dalton Hooker
Otto von Kotzebue, explorer
Pyotr Kozlov, explorer
Mikhail Lazarev, fleet commander, explorer
Meriwether Lewis, explorer
David Livingstone, missionary
Stepan Makarov, explorer, oceanographer
Thomas Nast, journalist, caricaturist and editorial cartoonist
Robert Peary, explorer
Marcelo H. del Pilar, writer, journalist, editor of La Solidaridad.
Nikolai Przhevalsky, explorer
Frederick Selous, explorer
Pyotr Semyonov-Tyan-Shansky, explorer, geographer
John Hanning Speke, explorer
Henry M. Stanley, journalist, explorer
John McDouall Stuart, explorer
John L. O'Sullivan, journalist who coined Manifest Destiny
Shoqan Walikhanov, explorer ethnographer, historian
Carter G. Woodson, African-American historian, author, journalist and the founder of the Association for the Study of African American Life and History.
Ferdinand von Wrangel, explorer

Philosophy and religion[edit]

The 19th century was host to a variety of religious and philosophical thinkers, including:

Mirza Ghulam Ahmad founded the Ahmadiyya Islamic movement in India.
Bahá'u'lláh founded the Bahá'í Faith in Persia
Mikhail Bakunin, anarchist
William Booth, social reformer, founder of the Salvation Army
Auguste Comte, philosopher
Mary Baker Eddy, religious leader, founder of Christian Science
Friedrich Engels, political philosopher
Georg Wilhelm Friedrich Hegel, philosopher
Allan Kardec, systematizer of the Spiritist Doctrine
Søren Kierkegaard, philosopher
Peter Kropotkin, anarchist
Karl Marx, political philosopher
Pierre-Joseph Proudhon, Mutualist anarchist
John Stuart Mill, philosopher
Krste Petkov Misirkov, philosopher and historian
William Morris, social reformer
Friedrich Nietzsche, philosopher
Nikolai (Nicholas) of Japan, religious leader, introduced Eastern Orthodoxy into Japan
Ramakrishna Paramahamsa, Hindu mystic
Claude Henri de Rouvroy, Comte de Saint-Simon, founder of French socialism
Arthur Schopenhauer, philosopher
Joseph Smith, Jr. and Brigham Young, founders of Mormonism
Vladimir Solovyov, philosopher
Herbert Spencer, 'The Great philosopher'
Charles Spurgeon, Baptist preacher and writer
Leo Tolstoy, anarchist
Ayya Vaikundar, initiator of the belief system of Ayyavazhi
Ellen White religious author and co-founder of the Seventh-day Adventist Church
St. Thérèse of Lisieux, French discalced Carmelite nun

Politics and the Military[edit]

The last shōgunTokugawa Yoshinobu, c. 1867

Sojourner Truth, 1870

The allies: Sultan of the Ottoman Empire; Abdulmecid I, Queen of United Kingdom, Victoria and President of France, Napoleon III.

John Quincy Adams, U.S. congressman, lawyer, and president
Susan B. Anthony, U.S. women's rights advocate
Pyotr Bagration, Russian general
Otto von Bismarck, German chancellor
Napoleon Bonaparte, French general, first consul and emperor
William Wells Brown, American abolitionist, novelist, playwright, and historian
John C. Calhoun, U.S. senator
Henry Clay, U.S. statesman, 'The Great Compromiser'
Jefferson Davis, President of the Confederate States of America
Louis-Nicolas Davout, French general
Benjamin Disraeli, novelist and politician
Frederick Douglass, U.S. abolitionist spokesman
Joseph Fouché, French politician
John C. Frémont, Explorer, Governor of California
Giuseppe Garibaldi, unifier of Italy and Piedmontese soldier
Alexander Gorchakov, Russian Chancellor
Gojong of Joseon, Korean emperor
William Lloyd Garrison, U.S. abolitionist leader
William Ewart Gladstone, British prime minister
Ulysses S. Grant, U.S. general and president
Theodor Herzl, founder of modern political Zionism
Andrew Jackson, U.S. general and president
Thomas Jefferson, American statesman, philosopher, and president
John Mitchell, Jr., American businessman, newspaper editor, activist, and politician
Ioannis Kapodistrias, Russian and Greek statesman
Lajos Kossuth, Hungarian governor; leader of the war of independence
Mikhail Kutuzov, Russian general
Robert E. Lee, Confederate general
Libertadores, Latin American liberators
Abraham Lincoln, U.S. president; led the nation during the American Civil War
Sir John A. Macdonald, Canada, first Prime Minister of Canada
Klemens von Metternich, Austrian Chancellor
Joachim Murat, King of Naples and French general
Meiji Emperor of Japan
Michel Ney, French general
Józef Poniatowski, Polish general
John Ross Robertson, newspaper publisher and philanthropist
Theodore Roosevelt, Explorer, Naturalist, future President of The United States
William Tecumseh Sherman, Union general during the American Civil War
Dred Scott, enslaved African American man
Fulwar Skipwith, the first and only president of the short lived Republic of West Florida
Mikhail Skobelev, Russian general
Leland Stanford, Governor of California, U.S. Senator, entrepreneur
István Széchenyi, aristocrat, leader of the Hungarian reform movement
Charles Maurice de Talleyrand, French politician
Harriet Tubman, African-American abolitionist, humanitarian, played a part in the Underground Railroad
Sojourner Truth, was an African-American abolitionist and women's rights activist
William M. Tweed, a.k.a. Boss Tweed, influential New York City politician, head of Tammany Hall
Abdülmecid I, 31st Sultan and 110th Caliph of Islam of the Ottoman Empire
Queen Victoria, British monarch
Arthur Wellesley, 1st Duke of Wellington, British General and prime minister
Hong Xiuquan, revolutionary, self-proclaimed Son of God
Victoria Woodhull, American politician, suffragette, abolitionist
Tokugawa Yoshinobu, the last Japanese shōgun
Sultan Abu Bakar of Johor, Johore Sultan
Andres Bonifacio, Filipino revolutionary leader

Composers[edit]

Supplementary portrait gallery[edit]

Louis Pasteur, 1878
Marie Curie, c. 1898
Leo Tolstoy c. 1897
Arthur Rimbaud c. 1872
Mark Twain, 1894
Henry David Thoreau, August 1861.
Émile Zola, c. 1900
We're commited to providing the best driver to solve your system issues. Digicom Systems (Creative Labs subsidiary) Modems Drivers Download for Windows 10/8/7/XP/Vista Device: Drivers System Issues? Digicom michelangelo usb driver windows 7.
Fyodor Dostoevsky, 1876
John L Sullivan in his prime, c. 1882
David Livingstone 1864, left Britain for Africa in 1840
Jesse and Frank James, 1872
Sitting Bull and Buffalo Bill Cody, Montreal, Quebec, 1885
Geronimo, 1887, prominent leader of the ChiricahuaApache
William Bonney aka Henry McCarty aka Billy the Kid, c. late 1870s
Deputies Bat Masterson and Wyatt Earp in Dodge City, 1876
Mathew Brady, Self-portrait, c. 1875
Thomas Nast, c. 1860–1875, photo by Mathew Brady or Levin Handy
Claude Monet's Impression, Sunrise, 1872, gave the name to Impressionism
Paul Cézanne, self-portrait, 1880–1881
Niccolò Paganini, c.1819
Frédéric Chopin, 1838

References[edit]

^'The First Telephone Call'. www.americaslibrary.gov.
^'Dec. 18, 1878: Let There Be Light — Electric Light'. WIRED. 18 December 2009.
^Encyclopædia Britannica's Great Inventions. Encyclopædia Britannica.
^'The United States and the Industrial Revolution in the 19th Century'. Americanhistory.about.com. 2012-09-18. Archived from the original on 2012-07-23. Retrieved 2012-10-31.
^Laura Del Col, West Virginia University, The Life of the Industrial Worker in Nineteenth-Century England
^'Modernization – Population Change'. Encyclopædia Britannica. Archived from the original on April 6, 2009.
^Liberalism in the 19th century. Encyclopædia Britannica.
^Sailing against slavery. By Jo Loosemore. BBC.
^The Atlantic: Can the US afford immigration?. Migration News. December 1996.
^Perez-Brignoli, Hector (1989). A Brief History of Central America. University of California Press. ISBN978-0520909762.
^R.J.W. Evans and Hartmut Pogge von Strandmann, eds., The Revolutions in Europe 1848–1849 (2000) pp. v, 4
^'The Emancipation Proclamation'. National Archives. October 6, 2015.
^McPherson, J. M. (2014). Emancipation Proclamation and Thirteenth Amendment. In E. Foner, & J. A. Garraty (Eds.), The Reader's companion to American history. Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin. Retrieved from http://search.credoreference.com/content/entry/rcah/emancipation_proclamation_and_thirteenth_amendment/0
^'13th Amendment to the U.S. Constitution: Abolition of Slavery'. National Archives. January 27, 2016.
^Reilly, Thomas H. (2004). The Taiping heavenly kingdom rebellion and the blasphemy of empire (1 ed.). Seattle: University of Washington Press. ISBN978-0295801926.
^W. G. Beasley, The Meiji Restoration (1972),
^ ^a^b^cKerr, Gordon (2012). A Short History of Africa: From the Origins of the Human Race to the Arab Spring. Harpenden, Herts [UK]: Pocket Essentials. pp. 85–101. ISBN9781842434420.
^'Killing ground: photographs of the Civil War and the changing American landscape'. John Huddleston (2002). Johns Hopkins University Press. ISBN0-8018-6773-8
^Engraving after 'Men of Science Living in 1807-8', John Gilbert engraved by George Zobel and William Walker, ref. NPG 1075a, National Portrait Gallery, London, accessed February 2010
^Smith, HM (May 1941). 'Eminent men of science living in 1807-8'. J. Chem. Educ. 18 (5): 203. doi:10.1021/ed018p203.
^Snyder, Laura J. (2000-12-23). 'William Whewell'. Stanford University. Retrieved 2008-03-03.
^'Multidrug-Resistant Tuberculosis'. Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. 2018-12-31. Archived from the original on April 21, 2009.
^David Damrosch and David L. Pike, eds. The Longman Anthology of World Literature, Volume E: The Nineteenth Century (2nd ed. 2008)
^M. H. Abrams et al., eds., The Norton Anthology of English Literature (9th ed. 2012)
^Oppenheimer, Clive (2003). 'Climatic, environmental and human consequences of the largest known historic eruption: Tambora volcano (Indonesia) 1815'. Progress in Physical Geography. 27 (2): 230–259. doi:10.1191/0309133303pp379ra.
^ ^a^b^cVickers (2005), page xii
^Wahyu Ernawati: 'Chapter 8: The Lombok Treasure', in Colonial collections Revisited: Pieter ter Keurs (editor) Vol. 152, CNWS publications. Issue 36 of Mededelingen van het Rijksmuseum voor Volkenkunde, Leiden. CNWS Publications, 2007. ISBN978-90-5789-152-6. 296 pages. pp. 186–203

30th Anniversary Poems

Primary sources[edit]

de Bary, Wm. Theodore, ed. Sources of East Asian Tradition, Vol. 2: The Modern Period (2008), 1192pp
Kertesz, G.A. ed Documents in the Political History of the European Continent 1815–1939 (1968), 507pp; several hundred short documents

External links[edit]

Media related to 19th century at Wikimedia Commons

Schoolhouse Rock 30th Anniversary Edition

Retrieved from 'https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=19th_century&oldid=912402047'

Adobe Photoshop Cs2 Portable

Uart Driver Free Rtos Demo

Comments are closed.

Origin of the term and definition[edit]

The Pre-Columbian period[edit]

Colonial Era[edit]

Colonial-era Religion[edit]

Traveling to the New World[edit]

Religion in Latin America[edit]

Nineteenth-century revolutions: the postcolonial era[edit]

20th century[edit]

1900–1929[edit]

Sports[edit]

1985 Ford Thunderbird 30th Anniversary Edition

1930–1960[edit]

Late-20th-century military regimes and revolutions[edit]

Washington Consensus[edit]

21st century[edit]

Turn to the left[edit]

Turn to the right[edit]

See also[edit]

Pre-Columbian[edit]

Colonization[edit]

History by region[edit]

History by country[edit]

Other topics[edit]

References[edit]

Further reading[edit]

Historiography[edit]

Colonial era[edit]

Independence era[edit]

Modern era[edit]

Overview[edit]

Eras[edit]

Wars[edit]

Napoleonic Wars[edit]

Latin American independence[edit]

Revolutions of 1848[edit]

Abolition and the American Civil War[edit]

Decline of the Ottoman Empire[edit]

China: Taiping Rebellion[edit]

Japan: Meiji Restoration[edit]

Colonialism[edit]

Africa[edit]

Other wars[edit]

Science and technology[edit]

Medicine[edit]

Inventions[edit]

Religion[edit]

Culture[edit]

Literature[edit]

Photography[edit]

Visual artists, painters, sculptors[edit]

War Of The Worlds 30th Anniversary Edition 2nd Amendment Edition

Music[edit]

Sports[edit]

Events[edit]

1801–1850[edit]

1851–1900[edit]

Significant people[edit]

War Of The Worlds 30th Anniversary Edition 2nd Amendment

Show business and theatre[edit]

Business[edit]

Anthropology, archaeology, scholars[edit]

Journalists, missionaries, explorers[edit]

Philosophy and religion[edit]

Politics and the Military[edit]

Composers[edit]

Supplementary portrait gallery[edit]

See also[edit]

References[edit]

Further reading[edit]

Diplomacy and international relations[edit]

Europe[edit]

Asia, Africa[edit]

North and South America[edit]

30th Anniversary Poems

Primary sources[edit]

External links[edit]

Schoolhouse Rock 30th Anniversary Edition